During the time of early empires in the Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, several civilizations rose and fell during intense warfare and failed development. These early territories contributed a vast amount of cultural evolution into their societies as they tried to prosper including, language, myth and, warfare. The Hittite Empire faced many hardships as it continued to grow within Mesopotamia, but continued to prosper and develop until its collapse.

The Hittite Monument of Sultanhani:
This stele was erected in the name of
god Tarhui for a better year of crops.
[Brewbooks CC BY-SA 2.0]

In the North West area of Mesopotamia a new culture and empire grew into the Hittite Kingdom. The stronghold and capital city of the Hittite empire was called Hattusas and laid in central Turkey. With the rise of the Hittite Empire also came the first record of the Indo-European language being spoken and with a bit of luck it became one of the strongest empires of its time. The Hittite language was written in cuneiform and during the end of the empires time frame the use of hieroglyphics became prevalent.

Since the Hittite Empire was so close in time frame and proximity to the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires many deities and myths are similar or even just different interpretations or accounts of the same event. The Hittites worshipped the Goddess Ishtar who held domain over war, fertility, love, and the dead. In the myth The Descent of Ishtar to the Underworld, the Hittites and surrounding cultures used the myth to reason the changing of the seasons through out the years.

The myth accounts that Ishtar went down to the underworld demanding entrance and threatening to raise the dead to kill the living. After her threats the gatekeeper goes to Ereshikigal to ask if Ishtar could enter. After being allowed entrance Ishtar is trapped in the underworld and winter comes over Mesopotamia. In a plea to let Ishtar leave the underworld Ea created a man named Good-looks and offered him to Ereshikigal. Out of outrage to Ea trick Ereshikigal curses Good-looks and reluctantly makes Ishtar leave the underworld restoring spring to the nations of Mesopotamia.

During a time when the Babylonian Empire was frail the King of Hittite was able to attack was able to attack the city of Babylon in the seventeenth century BC. Though the Hittites were unable to make a significant amount of headway in their campaign to conquer other areas of Mesopotamia they did contribute to the growth of Mesopotamia’s culture and diversity. Around 1200 BC the Hittite empire lost most of its power and by 1000 BCE it dissipated completely.

For Further Reading

A World of Art. By Henry M. Sayre. ISBN: 978-0-205-88757-6

Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary.
By Jeremy Black and Anthony Green. Illustrations by Tessa Rickards.

Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, The Flood, Gilagamesh, and Others. A New translation by Stephanie Dalley ISBN: 978-0-19-953836-2

Contribution by: Margaret Smith, University of New Mexico, Anthropology & Japanese undergraduate

The Hittites were a Bronze Age people from mountainous region of central Anatolia, modern Turkey. As powerful warlike people they battled constantly with the neighboring groups for control over the Mediterranean trade. The Hittites were forced to master a harsh homeland with land barely suitable to farm wheat and barley and domesticate sheep and cattle. Against the odds of the land and the success of their powerful army, the Hittites flourished between about 1600 and 1200BC, reaching its height in the 14^th century.

Map of the Hittite Empire, courtesy of touregypt.net

The Hittite built a massive stronghold at Hattusas, the center of their kingdom. Here they recruited and trained their powerful army. Much of the military success of the Hittite came from their skill as charioteers. They among the first to use horses in warfare and developed the chariot as one of the most feared weapons in battle. Each of their chariots could hold up to three people, one to drive, and two to fight. Being an army centered group, the Hittites were almost constantly at war, either in order to claim and protect their territory from their neighbors. Most of what we know about them today comes from ancient texts that have been recovered from ancient cuneiform letters and clay tablets. The greatest contract, or at least the most extensively documented contact, was between the Hittites and the Egyptians. They made treaties with the Egyptian pharaohs to avoid any conflicts (the Hittites sometimes bought off their rivals with gold) and were documented on clay tablets and found in the massive royal archives at Hattusas.

Cuneiform, image courtesy of historicconections.web.com

Cuneiform, image courtesy of biblearchaelogy.org

One of the well-known remains of the Hittites is their lion gates. They were the fearsome lion decorated stone gateways of Hattusas. Their capital city was well protected from enemies because it was set among cliffs and mountains, and the lions appeared to be life-like as the capitals guardians. 

The Lion Gate, image courtesy of anthroarcheart.org

Although the Hittites had a strong land army, it was difficult for them to defend their coasts. Invaders from the sea, known to them as “sea peoples”, constantly attacked the Hittites. This, together with unreliable harvests and constant pressure from the Egyptians, eventually bought the empire crumbling down in 1200BC.

About the Author

I'm Jose Pierre and I like learning about all aspects of culture, both ancient and modern. I enjoy learning how they communicated, expressed themselves, and their technology.

Mesopotamian Art - An Overview

by Jose-Pierre Estrada and Melanie Magdalena

A Companion Guide to Gardner’s Art Through the Ages: A Global History (13th edition)

Humans gave up the hunter-gatherer lifestyle first in Mesopotamia (“the land between the [Tigris and Euphrates] rivers”), beginning the practice of farming and herding. In the 19^th century, excavations revealed extraordinary art from stone reliefs depicting warfare to colossal statues of monstrous human-headed bulls.

Map of Ancient Mesopotamia

SUMER

The female head is made of lustrous white marble. For this material to be available, the summarians must have had imported the marble. There are holes drilled in the head so it can be attached to other pieces such as a torso.

Female head (Inanna?), from Uruk (modern Warka), Iraq, ca. 3200–3000 BCE. Marble, approx. 8” high. Iraq Museum, Baghdad.

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The Warka Vase is considered to be the first great work of narrative relief. The Vase depicts a religious festival in honor of the goddess Inanna. The vase was divided into three segments (also called registers or friezes), resembling a modern comic book. Each register or band tells a different story, the bottom band shows Uruk’s crops and herds, the middle one shows a procession on naked men in line carrying baskets and jars overflowing with votive offerings (a gift of gratitude to a deity), and the uppermost band contains a female figure a tall horned headdress next to two poles that are the sign of the goddess Inanna.

Presentation of offerings to Innana (Warka vase), from Uruk, Iraq, ca. 3200-3000 BCE. Alabaster, 3' 1/4" high. Iraq Museum, Baghdad.

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The statuettes of two worshipers are carved out of soft gypsum and are inlaid with shell and black limestone. The figures represent mortals rather than deities, with folded hands that gesture prayer, or holding small beakers that were used in Sumerian ritual rites. Their oversized eyes symbolize the wakefulness of the worshipers as they offer their prayers to the deity.

Statuettes of two worshipers, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar), Iraq, ca. 2700 BCE. Gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone, tallest figure approx. 2’ 6” high. Iraq Museum, Baghdad.

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Inscriptions in the fragment of the Victory Stele of Eannatum (stele of the vultures) describe the victory of Eannatum of Lagash over the city of Umma. The fragment depicts the king larger than the soldiers he is leading into battle.

Fragment of the victory stele of Eannatum (Stele of the Vultures), from Girsu (modern Telloh), Syria, ca. 2600–2500 BCE. Limestone, full stele approx. 5’ 11” high. Louvre, Paris.

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The Standard of Ur is a rectangular box of unknown function. The excavator, Leonard Wooley, belived the box was to be mounted on a pole with military standard. The two long sides of the box are refered to as the “war side” and the “peace side.” Each Side has three registers or bands depicting a scene.

The war side shows a battle field victory. The top register shows soldiers presenting captives to a kinglike figure who is larger than everyone else.

War side of the Standard of Ur, from Tomb 779, Royal Cemetery, Ur (modern Tell Muqayyar), Iraq, ca. 2600 BCE. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone, approx. 8” x 1’ 7”. British Museum, London.

The peace side shows a victory celebration, Following the same standard that the larger the figure, the higher of importance in society.

Peace side of the Standard of Ur, from Tomb 779, Royal Cemetery, Ur (modern Tell Muqayyar), Iraq, ca. 2600 BCE. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone, approx. 8” x 1’ 7”. British Museum, London.

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The royal bull-headed lyer is adorned with a gold bull’ head with inlaid figures of a Gilgamesh-like hero and animals acting out scenes of unknown significance also placed in registers.

Bull-headed lyre (restored) from Tomb 789 (“King’s Grave”), Royal Cemetery, Ur (modern Tell Muqayyar), Iraq, ca. 2600 BCE. Gold leaf and lapis lazuli over a wooden core, approx. 5’ 5” high. University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

Soundbox of the lyre from Tomb 789 ("King's Grave"), Royal Cemetery, Ur (modern Tell Muqayyar), Iraq, ca. 2600 BCE. Wood with inlaid gold, lapis lazuli, and shell, approx. 1’ 7” high. University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

Great Lyre, c. 2650-2550 B.C.E. from Smarthistory Videos on Vimeo.

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Designs are incised into small stone cylinders and then rolled over clay to produce artwork such as a banquet. Seals were used to identify goods.

Banquet scene, cylinder seal (left) and its modern impression (right), from the tomb of Pu-abi (tomb 800), Royal Cemetery, Ur (modern Tell Muqayyar), Iraq, ca. 2600 BCE. Lapis lazuli, approx. 2” high. British Museum, London.

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AKKAD AND THE THIRD DYNASTY OF UR

The head of an Akkadian Ruler is a copper, hollow-cast sculpture that was once attached to a full body statue. The Artist carefully portrays the rulers distinctive facial features.

Head of an Akkadian ruler, from Nineveh (modern Kuyunjik), Iraq, ca. 2250–2200 BCE. Copper, 1’ 2 3/8” high. Iraq Museum, Baghdad.

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The Victory stele of Naram-Sin commemorates his conquest of Lullubi, the people of the Iranian mountains of the east. Naram-Sin is shown leading his army up a mountain.

Victory stele of Naram-Sin, from Susa, Iran, 2254–2218 BCE. Pink sandstone, approx. 6’ 7” high. Louvre, Paris.



Victory Stele of Naram Sin, 2254-2218 B.C.E. from Smarthistory Videos on Vimeo.

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The alabaster votive disk of Enheduanna is the most important object associated with Enhuadanna, the oldest recorded name of a poet. The Disk bears a cuneiform inscription saying she was “wife of Nanna” and “daughter of Sargon, king of the world.”

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Gudea built and rebuilt many temples and placed statues of himself within all of them. The seated statue of Gudea is made of diorite. Gudea is seated with his hands gestured of prayer; on his lap is a tablet with a plan for a new temple.

Seated statue of Gudea holding temple plan, from Girsu (modern Telloh), Iraq, ca. 2100 BCE. Diorite, approx. 2’ 5” high. Louvre, Paris.

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THE SECOND MILLENNIUM BCE

The stele of Hammurabi’s law code is one of the first examples of foreshortening – depicting depth by representing a figure or object at an angle, instead of frontally or in profile. A sample of the Laws and penalties described in the code of law include:

If any one steal the minor son of another, he shall be put to death.

If any one take a male or female slave of the court, or a male or female slave of a freed man, outside the city gates, he shall be put to death.

If any one receive into his house a runaway male or female slave of the court, or of a freedman, and does not bring it out at the public proclamation of the major domus, the master of the house shall be put to death.

If any one find runaway male or female slaves in the open country and bring them to their masters, the master of the slaves shall pay him two shekels of silver.

If the slave will not give the name of the master, the finder shall bring him to the palace; a further investigation must follow, and the slave shall be returned to his master.

If he hold the slaves in his house, and they are caught there, he shall be put to death.

Stele with law code of Hammurabi, from Susa, Iran, ca. 1780 BCE. Basalt, approx. 7’ 4” high. Louvre, Paris.

Law Code of Hammurabi, 1792-1750 B.C.E. from Smarthistory Videos on Vimeo.
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This life size copper and bronze statue of Queen Napir-Asu weighs almost 4000 pounds! In the inscription it says the queen wanted her statue to be an immovable offering in a temple.

Statue of Queen Napir-Asu, from Susa, Iran, ca. 1350–1300 BCE. Bronze and copper, 4’ 2 3/4” high. Louvre, Paris.

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ASSYRIA

Lamassu were colossal limestone monsters that guarded the gates of King Sargon's palace. Lamassu was a winged, man-headed bull that had five legs – two seen from the front, and four seen from the side. The artist wanted to present a optical view of the Lamassu as it would stand in space in both angles.

Lamassu (winged, human-headed bull), from the citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad), Iraq, ca. 720–705 BCE. Limestone, approx. 13’ 10” high. Louvre, Paris.

Winged lion & bull (lamassu), 883–859 B.C.E. from Smarthistory Videos on Vimeo.

About the Author

I'm Jose Pierre and I like learning about all aspects of culture, both ancient and modern. I enjoy learning how they communicated, expressed themselves, and their technology.