The term urban exploration is defined as the exploration of man-made structures, usually abandoned ruins or not usually seen components of the man-made environment. Definitions tend to sound too boring, but the growing popularity of this hobby proves that the idea behind the words is actually very exciting. Many adventurous photographers consider it a new means of artistic expression enabling them to offer the public the shadowy and dusty face of cities as a contrast to their shiny surface. Other explorers do it for the sake of historical documentation, and there are even such people who do it merely for fun. The set of photographs I'd like to share with you reveals some of Toronto's concealed urban gems. If you decide to give urban exploration a try, please bear in mind that this activity can be quite dangerous, if you neglect proper preparation. Moreover, it may be considered trespassing in certain cases.

About the Author :: Heather Hadden

I am a Toronto real estate agent who enjoys meeting new people and helping them find their dream homes. When I'm not at work, I love spending time with my family and friends as well as traveling and painting, since I'm an artistic soul. Besides, I'm running a real estate blog focused also on healthy living, architecture, and the city of Toronto. http://ilovetoronto.com/

This project was created by Heather Hadden (author) and Jonathan Castellino (photographer).

Last December, while browsing about the Web, I stumbled into a TEDx talk about sustainable architecture. I immediately fell in love with the speaker's work. I immediately went to Twitter - I just had to share the most innovative and creative talk with BermudaQuest followers. What I did not expect was a reply:

@BermudaQuest Thanks so much for tweeting my TED talk! ♥

Today, I would like to share this wonderful interview. Rachel Preston Prinz is a passionate advocate of historic preservation. She strives to applying lessons learned in preservation and archaeology to modern bio-regional design. Her work has included forensic architecture, archaeological architecture, the preservation and adaptive reuse of historic structures, re/design for handicapped accessibility, as well as the design of bio-climatic residences and commercial structures for non-profits.

Tell me about yourself. What's your background as it relates to sustainable architecture? What is Archinia?

I got into sustainable design through an unusual route: when working on my Master's thesis in Architectural Design, I was afforded the opportunity to study in Italy - to get up close and personal with the subject of my thesis - the late sixteenth century Andrea Palladio, and in particular his Villa Emo at Fanzolo. After spending nearly a month studying the site, I realized that Palladio had introduced some incredible bio-regional design aspects to his buildings, making them not only well-designed as far as their response to their time and place - that being the Mannerist period of playful reinterpretations of Renaissance idealism and a deep respect for all things ordained by the heavens (his villas use mythical imagery to connect to the particular powers of certain gods and goddesses) - but the houses were also appropriate as a response to their specific physical environment. The houses were naturally heated, cooled and lit, water naturally went where it needed to be, and was swept away from where it didn't. The landscape and the architecture were inexorably intertwined, working together. I realized that what might appear as merely "structure" had a place. It stuck with me, and I began to search for that "sense of place" in everything else I would study or design.

Archinia is half "architecture" and half "Nia". I am technically a Nia white-belt instructor, though I don't teach. Nia is part dance, part yoga, and part martial arts. Nia is a mindfulness-based dance practice, where your only aim is to finding your own edges, so you can take your body places you weren't even sure it could go. Architecture and dance are intimates - moving through space requires a specific kind of attention - and I want to awaken that awareness in my design work.

Her firm, Archinia, is an architectural cooperative, employing the services of an array of professionals normally not considered part of "traditional architecture." Archinia's inclusive approach allows her to develop pioneering interdisciplinary research in: "revisiting historic precedents to get past style and into the design's substance; the development and design of eco-communities; and preserving context in historic structures, trails, roads, and monuments."

How did New Mexico archaeology inspire your work? Are there any sites in particular that you feel should be more well known?

I've always had a passion for archaeology. But for years I actually believed that you had to have a degree to participate in it. So I never pursued it. When I got to New Mexico three years ago, I was taking time to "reboot" my design paradigm. So, I started volunteering on various archaeological projects. Before I realized it, some of the archaeologists I was working with recognized that it was handy to have an architect around. Especially one trained in vernacular design. I could automatically see patterns where others had to look, and often missed. I came to love archaeo-astronomy and studying how astronomy influenced design. Then, when at Chaco Canyon one weekend, I realized that all these sites I was studying had some things in common. They were built with materials found within a very small radius from the site. The sites were oriented towards the sun for maximum solar gain. They were hand-built by the people of that place, and their culture was reflected in the details. Before long, I realized other places in NM confirmed these observations, responding to their environments and cultures in different ways in a variety of historic periods, but answering the same problems. I realized that archaeology told us how to build correctly for our place - and it worked when the power or gas went out - which was relevant as many thousands of us in NM suffered through staying up all night tending a fireplace, if we were lucky enough to have one, for 5 days with no gas for heat in the coldest part of winter

The most magical NM Archaeological sites to me are the petroglyphs at Mesa Prieta, everything at Chaco, Taos Pueblo, and the cave complexes at Tsankawai and Bandalier. The NM carved cave complexes are a special thrill... not only are the sites positioned strategically for access to water and therefore some degree of health, agriculture and protection, they are also oriented to the sun to take advantage of solar heat in the winter. Facing a cave opening south or southwest invites the late day sun in to warm your "bedchamber" before you tuck in to your blanket. It's ingenious and SO simple.

What projects is Archinia working on currently and what projects have been successful in the past?

We have the incredible good fortune of having a diverse workload that incorporates our interdiciplinary approach. We are working on archaeological projects including developing National Register nominations of National Historic Trails; historic preservation projects including developing ways of preserving context and landscape in historic sites, including current projects the Sanctuario de Chimayo and the Santa Fe National Cemetery; and we are helping in the design and implementation of vernacular homes and eco-communities right here at home as well as in far-away places including Arizona, Costa Rica, Canada and Russia.

How can the public help promote sustainable architecture?

Wow, that's a tough question! It is so easy to get greenwashed in design. I think that the biggest thing people can do to promote sustainability is to commit to it: Participate in your community's planning process. Buy local food. Encourage community gardens. Don't poison your own water supply (aquifers) with non-organic pesticides and fertilizers. Work within 10 miles of your home. Don't drive if you can walk or ride a bike - and look around when you do to absorb what makes your own place great, so you can help protect it. Be a good neighbor. Share. Help other people you may not agree with all the time to achieve their dreams, and if you can, encourage them to do it in a more sustainable way. We can all make a difference if we just try.

If you would like to hear more from Rachel Preston Prinz, 

we highly recommend her TEDx Talk!

About the Author

I'm Melanie, the founder of BermudaQuest and an archaeology undergraduate at the University of New Mexico. I love writing about ancient and modern cultures. My goal is to make information about our origins available to everyone [in simple English!]

Barbara McKenzie portrays Mayan ruin sites, monumental ceremonial spaces that were often astronomically aligned, from her six trips, organized by Marion Canavan, to Mexico, Belize, Honduras, and Guatemala. “The Maya were concerned with creating monumental ceremonial spaces,” says McKenzie, “often astronomically aligned, within which ritual and political theater could take place.” A map of twenty-eight sites of Mayan ruins guides the visitor back in history into the world of the ancient civilization.

There are nineteen sites in Yucatan, Mexico. Ek Balam is known for its temple/tomb “The Acropolis”. Izamal is an ancient city of twelve large pyramids. Of the Puuc sites, Uxmal was the most important ceremonial center of the region of Puuc; Kabah, is the second largest ceremonial center; and Edzná is the southernmost. Xlapak, only has one building in relatively good condition and is close to Labná – it may be a part of it. Chacmultan is split into three sites. Dzibilnoac is at the center of the Yucatan peninsula. Hochob, Sayil, and Hormiguero are also in the area. Balamku is known for its well preserved stucco façade. Chicanná is neighbors with Becán. Xpujil is an example of the Rio Bec style. Rio Bec sites are isolated and may have been “haciendas.” Kohunlich is known for the Temple of the Masks. Calakmul is the home of Chichen Itzá. The site was a major superpower in the area, of over 6,250 structures, and rival to Tikal.

West of Guatemala are three sites: Bonampak, Yaxchilan, and Palenque. Palenque is built upon terraces looking over the coastal plain with its back to the Chiapas Mountains. Two main sites are in Belize: Lamanai, one of the longest continuously occupied cities; and Xunantunich, was possibly a regional capital. Three sites lie in Guatemala: Tikal, the largest known Mayan city; Uaxactun, smaller and north of Tikal; and Quirigua, on the border with Honduras. In Honduras, Copan was dependent on Quirigua for trade route access and mineral resources.

About the Author

I'm Melanie, the founder of BermudaQuest and an archaeology undergraduate at the University of New Mexico. I love writing about ancient and modern cultures. My goal is to make information about our origins available to everyone [in simple English!]

Jenny Huang via Flickr

Living green is the trend in today's society. Buying smaller cars, recycling, and planting trees makes everyone feel as though they are doing their part in sustaining the environment but what about our homes? The direction in which the public is being led could be compared to digging a hole for a twenty-acre lake by hand. Does the task merit the results? In other words, our small contribution to sustaining a greener life through new products for buildings falls pitifully short of what we hope to achieve.

Perhaps it is time to stop following the crowd and really look at nature and what it has to say. The earth was created long before mammals but when they did arrive, the atmosphere was set up to sustain them with everything available from the earth. Look at the Romans and how they were able to build beautiful structures without the use of earthmovers and technology. Yet today when there is a power failure, our entire world stops.

When you stop and take a good hard look at the portfolios of green architects of today, are the projects of astounding buildings and homes really sustainable? Solar energy of today is nothing like solar power that was used 200 years ago. Technology has made it so complex, full of embodied energy and expensive components that it takes 50 years just to break even in reaching for energy sustainability. By then, the technology will be out of date and your home will be a dinosaur of outdated equipment that you are still paying for.

We All Need Air

Creating an airtight environment that shut out pollutants and kept our heating and cooling systems performing more efficiently 40 years ago seemed a grand idea. While in fact, we were shutting in the toxins that linger in almost everything we use. From the paint on the walls to the PVC shower curtain hanging in the bathtub, every home is filled with heavy metals, formaldehyde, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and many other harmful toxins. We have become so accustomed to these odors that we relate them to a 'new' product smell.
The concept of holding everything inside a house as tightly as possible by using technology from petroleum-based products and electricity (also petroleum-based) has only been in existence for 150 years. Before then, the world lived in a more functional way by letting nature help. How many of the structures built 150 years ago are still in existence compared to those of 5000 years ago? This proves that today's building materials and methods are nowhere close to being sustainable.

Environmental Analytics

Illness has increased ten-fold by breathing in toxins. We blame it on pollution, second hand cigarette smoke and international traffic but studies have proven otherwise. Sick Building Syndrome is a new term that has been placed on individuals suffering from asthma, allergies, dizziness, fatigue, chills and a host of other symptoms that seem to have no medical explanation. It is believed that over 30% of all new construction and remodeled buildings have some type of SBS attributing to health issues. So we make more filters, disinfectants and air cleaners to battle the problem but aren't we still just digging a hole to nowhere?

Symmetry

Real Green Architecture can be sustainable and healthy without being unattractive. It is the attitude of wanting what everyone else has that fog the brains of many intelligent masters of design. Stop and consider exactly what it is about a concrete building with long glass panels that you find so stimulating. The answer is simple, symmetry, which leads us back to nature. Everything in nature is symmetrical. Notice a tree line against the sky and how evenly the tops seem to flow with one another. Plants, rocks, birds, caves, mountains and even a grain of sand all share this amazing trait. As long as symmetry is followed in a concrete building or a adobe made of clay, the results will be pleasing to the human eye.

Look at What Works

Archeologists have seen the answer to many of our modern day living problems by visiting sites where great architecture still stands. Architects that study new green methods are finding that by mixing the old sustainable methods of building and what we know today can bring a whole new generation of sustainable green architecture. Pit houses, earth homes, courtyard homes and adobes utilize the assets of the earth and eliminate the need for buying and buying more new unnecessary products that do not work. While looking at some of these types of structures from centuries past may not make a huge impression, think of the opportunity! With the talent of today, modern ideas and most importantly, never forgetting that we need help from nature, we can create some of the most awesome designs in the world.

What is a Pit House or Earth House?

An earth house is an unconditional type of structure that uses the terrain of the land to insulate a home. This is nothing like living in a basement that has concrete lined walls and is airtight. An earth house or pit house works with the land to provide insulation, energy and much needed CO2. There are several advantages to building an earth home like there is never any damage from the weather, security issues are nonexistant and health issues are diminished. There is also no worry of fires, natural light can be streamed in from above and there is plenty of land for planting or landscaping on the roof.

Bercy-Chen Studio, pit house, Tree Hugger

Paul Queen's home, earth house, Sun Sentinel

What is a Courtyard Home?

Courtyard homes have been used for thousands of years in many areas of the world. Starting out as a way to keep public buildings together with a central meeting square, residential homes soon found that the benefits of having a square from wind and inclement weather could be enjoyed. By using the interior courtyard as a haven for trees and plants, the air is fresher, less energy is needed and nature is easily spread throughout the home. This can be a perfect way to begin a green architectural project with an existing small home by beginning to expanding wings to encircle your property.

Siheyuan, courtyard home, China Tours

Adobe Homes

Adobe homes are making a comeback in the southwestern part of the country. For hundreds of years, Indians have used a mixture of earth and clay to build these beautiful rounded structures that are energy efficient and provide a natural environment of CO2. Totally waterproof, they have been proven to stand the test of time and are very inexpensive to build with materials readily available.

Adobe home, House Design Ideas

Not everyone has the luxury of being able to build a new home or to remodel and expand an existing house but there are several other ways that you can use nature to provide a better atmosphere where you live. Plants and trees are nature's way of providing fresh air to everyone. Vertical green walls are becoming popular for aesthetic reasons as well as using as an alternative to air cleaners. They can be used indoors or out and provide an excellent way of cleansing the air around you. Fruit trees can provide a two-fold asset when planted five to ten feet from your home on the south or west side. The shade will cut your energy costs, provide a more pleasing temperature and provide fruit that is sweet and healthy.

Overall, we need to change our way of thinking about what is good for us, our family and our future by looking at our ancestors of the past. By combining what we have learned from mistakes in architecture, what we know about nature and then blending the two, it is possible to create a future with sustainable green architecture without relying on complex expensive technology.

Additional Resources

• Better Than Green Design
• Green Building Tips
• Are Toxic Chemicals Lurking in Your Building Products
• Adobe Homes

This article was written by Simon Marshall, CEO of Buildingsguide.com, a leading online resource for steel and metal building information, buying guides, and in-depth research.

Ashoka Maurya

(304 - 232 BCE)

PBS © 2008

MayaVision International

Ashoka Maurya (Aśoka in Sanskrit), also known as Ashoka the Great, reined as a “righteous king” (dhammaraja) during the Maurya Dynasty of India from 269 – 238 BCE. He was known as a righteous king because, after converting to Buddhism, his political expression was dominated by Buddhist values. Ashoka, born in 304 BCE, was the son of the second emperor Bindusara, who in turn had been the son of the first emperor Chandragupta. Ashoka had one younger brother and several older half-brothers. His older brothers feared Ashoka would be given the throne when he began to show success as a military leader. Emperor Bindusara grew ill and it became clear that his death was imminent. War broke out between the brothers fighting for the throne. After a series of battles, Ashoka killed most of his brothers and attained the throne in 274 BCE.

During his early reign, Ashoka set out to conquer the surrounding kingdoms. His military conquests spread across India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and some parts of Iran.

The first eight years of his empire were brutal – Ashoka “became famous for his brutality and his desire to expand the Mauryan Empire” (Freeman). When he learned that one of his brothers was hiding in Kalinga, he invaded the province. Thousands were killed and the land utterly destroyed.

Ashoka became repulsed by the number of deaths he witnessed at Kalinga. “Standing along the front lines, Ashoka witnessed first hand the massacre of hundreds of thousands […] He knew so many had lost their lives simply because, he, the king, had ordered them to do so. Women became widows, children now orphans, Ashoka asked himself exactly what had his people won in war” (Wold). The kingdoms around them were not a threat of invasion. From that point on, he rejected violence for the rest of his life, converted to Buddhism and embraced vegetarianism. His attention moved from conquest to the welfare of his people. Peace began, his people began to love and respect all living things.

Ashoka the Great is famous for his non-violent propagation of Buddhism across Asia, as well as Europe and Africa. He abolished the slaughter and mutilation of animals. Hunting was limited only for consumption, though many followed his example as a vegetarian. He showed mercy to those in prison and gave them freedom one day every year. He set up universities as well as “water transit and irrigation systems for trade and agriculture” (Wold). The caste system ceased to exist in his eyes. Even though Buddhism was the national religion, he supported religious tolerance and unified the empire. Each and every person was given the rights to freedom, tolerance, and equality.

Now, the first Buddhist emperor became a Buddhist practitioner. He built 84,000 stupas across the Mauryan empire to house the sacred relics of Buddha. Ashoka sent out his children on religious pilgrimages to other kingdoms so they could share the philosophies that had unified their empire of peace and prosperity.

Great Stupa at Sanchi

Ekabhishek, Wikipedia Commons

A surviving Edict of Ashoka, Kolhua, Bihar.
PBS © 2008 MayaVision International.

He began by sending his only daughter, Sanghamitta, and son, Mahindra, to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka. “Ashoka also sent many prominent Buddhist monks to modern Kashmir, Afganistan, Bhutan, China, Mongolia Cambodia, Laos, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Persia, Egypt, and Greece. Ashoka’s efforts helped to spread Buddhism across East Asia, where it has become the dominant faith of that region. Ashoka’s efforts to spread Buddhism in the west were much less successful. Nevertheless, there is evidence that a small Buddhist community began to develop at the Greek city of Alexandria in Egypt at this time. It has even been suggested that certain Ptolemaic Greek philosophers were influenced by Buddhism and that they in turn influenced the early development of Christianity” (Explore the Mediterranean).

Lion Capital of Ashoka
Catawba College

The great Mauryan emperor died in 232 BCE, though his dynasty lasted fifty more years. His name would have disappeared from history becoming only a myth if it hadn’t been for the pillars that recorded the actions and teachings he put in place. His testimonies are located throughout the territories he influenced. These monuments were not written in Sanskrit, instead they were written in what would be the first written language since the ancient city of Harrapa, Prakrita. 

Today “one of his stupas, the Great Sanchi Stupa, has been declared as a World Heritage Site by UNECSO. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath has a four-lion capital, which was later adopted as the national emblem of the modern Indian republic” (Cultural India). Pillar Edict VII quotes Ashoka, “I consider the promotion of my people’s welfare my highest duty.” He was able to initiate the global spread of Buddhism and affected around 21.5 billion lives.

Resources:

Cultural India. "Ashoka." CulturalIndia.net

Dhammika, Ven S. "King Ashoka: His Edicts and Timelines." The Wheel Publication Number 386/387. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1993.

Explore the Mediterranean. "The Top Ten Most Influential People in History." Historical Atlas of the Mediterranean. 

Freeman, Larry. "Ashok: A Short Biography of Ashoka the Great of India." Hubpages.com

Wold, Kevin. "The Life of Ashoka Mauryan." Kevin Wold's Webpage for Those Who Seek Enlightenment. CHICO.

About the Author

I'm Melanie, the founder of BermudaQuest and an archaeology undergraduate at the University of New Mexico. I love writing about ancient and modern cultures. My goal is to make information about our origins available to everyone [in simple English!]

History of Architecture

The Ancient Pyramids to the Steel Buildings of Today 

Guest Blog by Simon Marshall

Architecture is a practice that has been around since before recorded history and the reasons for constructing distinctive, enormous and aesthetically pleasing structures has varied. Some of the greatest architectural achievements have come to symbolize ideas and even entire nations.

Egyptian

One of the most striking forms of architecture is that of the buildings constructed by the Ancient Egyptians, especially the pyramids. Pyramid construction began around 2,700 B.C. and continued for a thousand years. The Great Pyramid at Giza is believed to have taken 23 years and required 20,000 to 30,000 laborers. A committee was responsible for the pyramid construction, which included an architect, overseer of construction and a chief engineer.

The Pyramids of Giza
Image courtesy of Ricardo Liberato, Wikipedia Commons

The pyramid cores were made from cheaper limestone, while the outer layers was made from finer limestone. The capstone was made from basalt, granite or a hard stone that was plated with a precious metal, such as silver, gold or electrum.

Copper chisels were used to quarry limestone and sandstone. Harder stones included granite and diorite. A very hard rock called dolerite was used to pulverize granite near the edge that would be extracted using about 65 men. Then, wooden pegs were jammed into the slots that opened up from the dolerite pounding and the slots were then filled with water. The pegs would then expand and split the granite, allowing it to be slid on to a boat. The slipway on which the stones were dragged was lubricated with oil so that the stones slipped more easily. The stones were dragged into position using ramps constructed from mud brick and covered with plaster chips.

One major issue that the master architect must have faced was the act of communicating precise construction plans for over 20,000 workers. However, Ole J. Bryn, an architect and associate professor, speculates that the Egyptians had developed their own building grid that allowed the architect to project the pyramid by simply understanding its dimensions.

Resource from Sciencedaily.com

Resource from Ntnu.edu

Greek

Many Greek structures built prior to the 5th century B.C. were made using crude stones. The structures were coated with marble dust and lime. When the Greeks began using marble, they still coated the marble with the same coating.

The Parthenon
Image courtesy of Steve Swayne, Wikipedia Commons

The most well known temple is the Parthenon, which is viewed as a symbol of Ancient Greece and was built in 438 BC. It had a rectangular floor plan and had a series of steps on both sides. The most distinctive feature is that of the Doric columns. The temple consisted of two rooms, with the larger of the two containing a cult statue. The smaller room was the treasury. The Doric columns are a type of order that consists of triglyphs and metopes on the entablature. Each metope has a panel of relief sculpture. Various other relief sculptures are found throughout.

Resource from Reed.edu

Roman

The Romans were also known for their architecture. The Colosseum was the most significant entertainment center of Ancient Rome and was used to hold gladiatorial combat, mock battles and dramas. It was completed in 80 AD and was able to seat 50,000 spectators. It has an elliptical shape and consists of three floors made of travertine stone. The fourth floor consisted of windows. Emperor Vespasian had the Colosseum constructed after the end of Nero's rule as a way to appease the people.

The Colosseum
Image courtesy of David Iliff. License: CC-BY-SA 3.0

Another significant architectural feature was the aqueduct, which continues to survive today. The aqueducts were constructed to transport water across gaps and the greatest one, found near Sierra de Guadarrama, is 2950 feet long.

Resource from Bluffton.edu

Resource from Stanford.edu

Gothic

The Great Cathedrals were built during the Gothic architectural period between 1,100 and 1,450 AD. These were often structures that were much larger than what was normally possible at the time. They were constructed to symbolize a ship carrying people of God, with the roof constructed in a way that was similar to the hull of a ship.

The structure consists of a nave that is braced by lower aisles. The aisles are separated by rows of columns and serve to buttress the inner walls, which hold the roof. They were made from stone. There was also a crossing, which was the point where the transept and the nave intersected. On the outside, the crossing appeared as a dome. From the inside, occupants can see piers and arches, which supported the weight of the dome. Later Gothic cathedrals were lighter and were supported by flying buttresses.

Reims Cathedral
Image courtesy of Bodoklecksel, Wikipedia Commons

Nave of Reims Cathedral looking west. The upper Rose Window is in  Gothic architecture Rayonnant style.
Image courtesy of Vassil, Wikipedia Commons

Medieval

Castles were constructed throughout the Middle Ages. The largest castle ever constructed was the Malbork Castle in Poland, which was stolen from the Polish by the Teutonic Knights. This castle was finished in 1406, making it the largest castle in the world in terms of surface area. The building was so well-designed that much of it remained standing after World War 2, when it was used as a battling ground between the Germans and Soviets.

Malbork Castle
Image courtesy of DerHexer, derivative work of Carschten, Wikipedia Commons

Castles did not have set standards for how they were built and were constructed based on the needs of the community. The motte-and-bailey fortress was the most common type of castle, which consisted of a circular ditch with wooden palisades at the edge of the ditch, with a wooden tower constructed on the top of a mound. The more iconic stone castles were constructed mostly by the wealthy. Originally, the castles were not meant to be lived in and were instead used as a last place to retreat when defending against invaders. Stone castles became more common in the 1100s and many castles became large enough for the entire community to live in.

Windsor Castle: motte (center) and two baileys (left and right)
Image courtesy of Mark S Jobling, derivative work of Hchc2009, Wikipedia Commons

Resource from Boise State

Resource from bu.edu

Neoclassical

Between the 1730s and 1925s, Classical architectural ideas became popular once again, as seen in many of the buildings located in Washington DC. The classical buildings were constructed to match the Roman and Greek legal and political ideals that form the foundation of the US constitution and political system.

The White House itself was a Georgian estate that was transformed into a Neoclassical mansion when architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe added the portico in 1824. Many of the other buildings, including the US Capitol building, were created through a competition carried out between different designers, most of whom submitted designs inspired by the Renaissance. However, three of the buildings had classical inspirations, which Thomas Jefferson preferred. It was his suggestion that the Capitol look like the Roman Pantheon.

Another distinct piece of architecture is the Washington Monument, which is the world's tallest stone obelisk. Architect Robert Mills designed the monument in the 1840s and it was not finished until 1884.

COLCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT: Lincoln Memorial, Washington Monument, OAS Building,
World War II Memorial, Meridian Hill Park, U.S. Capitol, Memorial Bridge, White House
Image courtesy of Andrew G. Clem

Modern

Modern steel buildings are the tallest structures that can be constructed. The first skyscrapers were built in the 1880s when 10 to 20 story buildings were constructed. In 1855, Sir Henry Bessemer developed a process for refining and strengthening raw iron that allowed much larger buildings to be supported. Prior to the development of steel, taller buildings were constructed using solid concrete, which had to be very thick to support the weight of the structure.

The steel serves as a skeleton for the building, holding everything else up and together. While concrete is not the main supporter of the building's weight, it is still used in skyscraper construction.

Burj Khalifa
Image courtesy of Wikipedia

Most modern steel buildings are designed using computer software, since a building that would take a structural engineer months to design can be finished in one day. The architect designs the building and the structural engineer is responsible for determining what needs to be done to meet the architect's requirements. The engineer performs mathematical calculations  to  determine  where  the  framework,  beams,  columns,  girders,  trusses  and bracing go. Braces are placed in strategic areas to provide additional support for the area of a load. Joints and nodes connect structural elements together. The steel structure is built on a concrete foundation with anchor bolts that are embedded into the concrete. They are also connected to column base plates with washers and nuts. Most of the recent developments in steel buildings have resulted from a need to construct buildings that are resistant to earthquakes.

[PDF] Resource from Ivc.edu

Resource from Buildings Guide

Since 2010, the world's tallest building has been Dubai's Burj Khalifa, whose chief architect was Skidmore, Owings and Merrill. The building was constructed during the global financial crisis of 2007-10 and most of the apartments in the building are currently vacant. The building's design was derived from a patterning system that comes from Islamic architecture. It is 2,723 feet tall.

Resource from Burjkhalifa.ae

This article was written by Simon Marshall, CEO of Buildingsguide.com, a leading online resource for steel and metal building information, buying guides, and in-depth research.

The Inca Empire: Rise and Fall

The Inca Empire
Image courtesy of EuroHistory Teacher, Wikipedia Commons

The Incas began as a hill tribe from Peru. Over a course of 300 years, they dominated the whole area of the Andes mountains.

By the 1500s, their empire became known as Tawantinsuyu, “The Four United Provinces” in Quencha, the language of the people of the central Andes of South America.

Their four provinces (or suyu in Quencha) include ChinchaySuyu, AntiSuyu, KuntiSuyu, QullaSuyu, and the coners of these provinces meet at the center, Cusco, the Inca capital. 

Religion and Culture

The Inca referred to themselves as “children of the Sun,” as they belived they were descendents of the sun god, Inti. Other than Inti, they worshiped many gods that relate to nature:

• Viracocha (also Pachacamac) - Created all living beings
• Apu Illapu - Rain God, prayed to when they need rain
• Ayar Cachi - Hot-tempered God, causes earthquakes
• Illapa - Goddess of lightning and thunder (also Yakumama water goddess)
• Inti - sun god and patron deity of the holy city of Cuzco (home of the sun)
• Kuychi - Rainbow God, connected with fertility
• Mama Kilya - Wife of Inti, called Moon Mother
• Mama Occlo - Wisdom to civilize the people, taught women to weave cloth, and build houses
• Manco Cápac - known for his courage and sent to earth to become first king of the Incas, taught people how to grow plants, make weapons, work together, share resources, and worship the Gods
• Pachamama - The Goddess of earth and wife of Viracocha, people give her offerings of coca leafs and beer and pray to her for major agricultural occasions
• Qochamama - Goddess of the sea
• Sachamama - Means Mother Tree, goddess in the shape of a snake with two heads
• Yakumama - Means mother Water, represented as a snake, when she came to earth she transformed into a great river (also Illapa)

They worshiped their deities daily because they believed without doing so the gods would intervene and cause problems. The Incas also worshiped huacas - sacred places or objects. A huaca could range from being a large building or a tiny toy statue. Every family had a huaca amd would offer it daily prayers. Priests performed daily ceremonies at the temples, offering prayers to the huacas in their care.

The Inca believed in the afterlife and mummified their dead like the ancient Egyptians. Those who obeyed the Incan moral code — ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) — "went to live in the Sun's warmth while others spent their eternal days in the cold earth." The mummies of dead rulers remained in their palaces and were treated as if they were still alive. They were brought offerings and were paraded through the streets on special occasions.

The Inca practiced cranial deformation. They would wrap tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns in order to alter the shape of their soft skulls into a more conical form; this cranial deformation was made to distinguish the nobility apart from the common people.

Once and every month, the Incas held a major religious festival. Festivals were held outside and included many kinds of games, songs, dancing, food, parades, and sacrifice (of animals usually). If something special was happening, like the crowning of a new emperor or a drought, the Incas would include human sacrifice as part of the festival. The biggest and most important festivity held once a year during the winter solstice of the southern hemisphere was Inti Raymi, the feast of the sun The "Inti Raymi" or "Sun Festivity". It was aimed to worship the "Apu Inti" (Sun God) in the great Cuzco Main Plaza.

Architecture

By far the best example of Inca architecture is the breath taking site of Machu Picchu:  

Machu Picchu, Image courtesy of Martin St-Amant, Wikipedia Commons

Inca buildings were constructed of white granite or limestone. The temples were constructed without any use or mortar because the stone block fit together so perfectly. The stones that were used fit together because they were sculpted by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another rock and carving away any sections on the lower rock. Another technique used was narrowing of the top than at the bottom of walls of temples and palaces. They are not perpendicular but slope slightly inward. The doors of Inca houses were usually high and trapezoidal shape. As in ancient Egypt, the bottom of the door is wider than the top.

Pictures of the exterior wall of the Inca fortress of Sacsayhuaman, showing how the huge pieces of rock fit perfectly.
Image courtesy of Christophe Meneboeuf, Wikipedia Commons 

Stone wall, Image courtesy of Rutahsa Adventures

Doorway, Image courtesy of Lonely Planet Images

Social Order and Politics

The social order of the Inca varied from area to area, but it maintained the same basic structure. On top were the Sapa Inca. Inca translates to emperor, sapa means only - so Sapa Inca means "Only Ruler". Then came the nobles, these were often the priests and relatives of past emperors or the current ones. After, there were craftsmen and architects; they were very high on the social ladder because of their skills valued by the Empire. Then came the working class, often just farmers. After this, were the slaves and peasants of the society.

Inca empire expansion
Image courtesy of Spesh531, Wikipedia Commons

When the Chancas attacked, in the early 15th century, and Cusi Yupanqui took over his father's throne, Viracocha Inca, he managed to put the empire back together under the name of Pachacuti in alliance with his son Tupac Inca. With this, Tawantinsuyu was born.

"Through threat, negotiation, or actual bloody conquest, they subjugated new provinces, determined the number of tax-paying peasants, installed a local Inca governor, and then left an administration in place that was empowered to supervise and collect taxes before armies moved on. If cooperative, the local elites were allowed to retain their privileged positions and were rewarded handsomely for their collaboration. If uncooperative, the Incas exterminated them and wiped out their supporters. Peasants were a crop, a crop that could be harvested through periodic taxation. Docile, obedient workers who created surpluses, in fact, were more valuable than any of the ...potatoes...llamas...and alpacas..." - Kim MacQuarrie, "The Last Days of the Incas," pg. 45

Gold figurines, Image courtesy of Geyman.com

Art
The Inca sculpted pottery and ceramics which featured geometric designs painted in black, red, brown, yellow, and white. Metalworkers excelled making ornaments, tools, and weapons out silver, copper, gold, and bronze. Female statues are found with Inca offerings to the gods. Because llamas were very important in the Andean region, lots of stylized llama figures were made by metalworkers. 

Wooden llama, Image courtesy of lrb.com

Metal artwork is scarce. Spanish conquistadores took it upon themselves to melt down as much gold and silver as possible to send back to Spain. 

The Mystery of Machu Picchu
On July 24, 1911, Hiram Bingham (with the help of local Indians) stumbled upon what he believed was Vilcabamba, the lost city of the Inca where the last of the independent Inca rulers waged a years-long battle against the Spanish -- but what he found was not the lost city, but a forgotten city.

Since the Inca did not develop a writing system (they used a knotting system known as the quipu), they did not leave behind any documented clues on what the purpose of the location was. Bingham had to rely on excavating to determine what Machu Picchu was. At first he had belived it was some kind of a training ground for women since most skeletal remains found was mostly female (later analysis proved it was fifty-fifty male and female). The latest accepted idea (2007) is that this marvelous city, in fact, was a royal estate of Pachacuti.

"To commemorate his conquest of the Vilcabamba Valley, Pachacuti ordered that his third royal estate be built, this one very near the Chuquichaca bridge, on a high ridge overlooking what is now called the Urubamba River. The Inacas apparently called the new site Picchu, meaning 'peak.' Since the proposed citadel and nearby satellite communities were planned from the start to form a part of a luxurious private estate, the entire complex would display some of the finest examples of Inca engineering and art. [...] The citadel of Machu Picchu was thus the third and perhaps the most important jewel in the crown of architectural monuments that Pachacuti had created, after Pisac and Ollantaytambo." - Kim MacQuarrie, "The Last Days of the Incas," pg. 441, 443

Excavation at Machu Picchu is still continuing but any further evidence regarding the purpose of the location is highly unlikely. The best clues scientist and archaeologist have is only the remains that can reveal the reasons for its construction, the activities that took place long ago on the peak along the Urubamba River.

Learn more about the Incas!

Here are our recommendations:

  

References:

Jones, David M. The Myths & Religion of the Incas. UK: Southwater, 2008.

MacQuarrie, Kim. The Last Days of the Incas. UK: Piatkus, 2007.

"National Geographic Photo Gallery--Inca Culture." National Geographic. Web. 08 Jan. 2012. 

Williams, Bill. "The Incredible Incas for Kids." The Incredible Incas for Kids. Web. 08 Jan. 2012. 

About the Author

I'm Jose Pierre and I like learning about all aspects of culture, both ancient and modern. I enjoy learning how they communicated, expressed themselves, and their technology.