There are stories about the great King Arthur of Camelot, a man of honor, duty, and self-sacrifice. King Arthur and Camelot are a riddle for every age. 

(All dates referenced in this article are Common Era [CE] or Anno Domini [AD].) 

In order to solve the riddle, first you have to go back to the Late Roman Era. In 410, Honorius withdraws Roman legions from Britain. According to the historian Bede, the Anglo-Saxons came in waves, the Adventus Saxonum, in 449 to 455. In 476, lived the last Roman Emperor of the West, Romulus Augustus. Then, as Dr. Richard Hodges says, “Depending on whom you believe, there was this character, this individual known as Ambrosius Aurelianus who lived 490 to 520, or as I believe until 550.” 

With the discovery of potsherds, many dates have been modified. Mediterranean amphorae were discovered in western Britain that date back to 525 to 550. Then, in the 550s Bertha, a French princess, marries Ethlebertht of Kent: this event is significant because this is the first act of Christianity in that part of Britain since the Romans. Nearly half a century later, St. Augustine arrives in 597. During that time, there are all sherds (E wares) in the western Irish Sea zone. Finally, the Sutton Hoo ship burial site completes the timeline at 625/8, which gives us a lot of insight about the archaeology of this mysterious world. 

Geoffrey of Monmouth, or Gruffudd ap Arthur, (1100-1155) created the modern story of King Arthur. He was a Mormon but spent much of his life before he became Bishop of St. Asaph (1152-1155) at Oxford. It is probable that he reshaped the story of Arthur and Merlin at Oxford. But, Geoffrey did not create the story. Gildas, who possibly lived in Wales, wrote the first version of King Arthur during the sixth century, De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. He wrote about the land around him and the magical tale of Ambrosius Aurelianus who confronted two dragons and his fights with the Anglo-Saxons. However, the ninth century chronicler Nennius embellished the story with his work Historia Brittonum, and the introduction of the magical character Myrddin Wyllt, a prototype of Merlin. Geoffrey constructed we know by using Nennius’ version of the Tale of King Arthur. 

Raleigh Radford (1900-1999), in 1936 excavated Tintagel Castle. During this excavation, he discovered numerous amounts of imported Mediterranean potsherds. It took him twenty years to publish his discovery, a discovery that he believed linked Tintagel to King Arthur. He proposed that this particular part of western Britain that included Cornwall, Devon, and Somerset was actually home to the Arthurian resistance of the Anglo-Saxons. Christopher Morris went back to the site and discovered a slate inscribed with the name “Artognov” on August 6, 1998. This is the first piece of evidence of a possible King Arthur. 

Tintagel Castle
Image courtesy tansyfiredragon.blogspot.com

Read the original publication about the “Arthurian Inscription Found at Tintagel”

Similar sherds to those in Tintagel are all over western Britain, always in fortified hill sites. These sherds led Radford to Glastonbury. It was believed that King Arthur and his lady were buried at Glastonbury Abbey. Radford hardly discovered anything at Glastonbury except that the site had a very long history that dated back to Roman times. 

In 1971, Leslie Alcock published Arthur’ Britain. Alcock believed South Cadbury was Camelot. There are many different beliefs about where Camelot was. Geoffrey of Monmouth believed the City of Legions, Caerleon-on-Usk was Camelot. The Welsh Triads believe Camelot was Celliwic in Cornwall-Callington or Killibury Castle. Then you have William Camden, who wrote Britannia, claim the local people of South Cadbury believed South Cadbury was Arthur’s Palace. 

William Stukeley wrote in Itinerarium curiosum (1723), “Camelot is a noted place […] There is a higher angle of ground within, ditched about, where they say was King Arthur’s palace […] Roman coin in great plenty has been found here: I saw vast numbers of Antoninus and Faustina. Selden, in his notes Poluolbion, writes it was full of ruins and reliques of old buildings.” 

Small excavations began at the South Cadbury Hillfort. Leslie Alcock decided to call this place Cadbury-Camelot. Two interesting discoveries came up. First, they discovered fortifications across the hilltops with the same dates as the potsherds. The fortified hilltop had been built to defend the people of the era from the Roman conquest. Alcock discovered the insides had been refurbished. The second discovery is a timber palace. The palace is not as many would imagine Arthur’s home after all those magical movie portrayals, but it is the palace of Cadbury-Camelot nonetheless. Mediterranean potsherds appeared yet again inside the palace. Whether Cadubury-Camelot was the mythical Camelot of the stories or not, the site was a very important place. 

Cadbury Castle (Camelot?)

Immediately to the east of Cadbury lay the Selwood Forest. Today, very little of the forest remains due to extensive deforestation during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Selwood would have separated “Arthur’s Britain” from Anglo-Saxon Britain.

Since Alcock’s excavation, the potsherds have been redated to 525 to 550 during the time of Justinian. Then there is the very unlikely tale of Adventus Saxonum. According to the Legend of King Arthur, Arthur fought against the Anglo-Saxon Vortigern. The Anglo-Saxons are portrayed as violent warlike people who in reality were very peaceful.

A climate crisis hit Ireland and Britain. By looking at trees, scientists know there was no growth for four or five years. Cloud cover was very likely and probably caused by a volcanic eruption. Anglo-Saxons relocated westward through Selwood Forest. The fortifications are most likely a response to this unexpected clash of cultures.

During this Merovingian Age, there were two trade routes in Britain and Ireland: the eastern trade route and the western trade route. The eastern trade route had items of higher value. The Sutton Hoo burial ship is evidence of this richness due to trade. The most remarkable discovery inside the ship were the Celtic bowls. These bowls prove that at the funerary feast, there were Britains present. The fact that Britains were present means that the Arthurian resistance had ended.

Original publication of the Sutton Hoo Burial Ship
Image courtesy Illustrated News London

1939 Sutton Hoo Ship Excavation: Sutton Hoo Society

   

Sutton Hoo Burial Ship
Celtic Bowl, Merovingian Purse Cover, Helmet

Here are the undeniable facts:

• There was a resistance during the sixth century 
• Christianity was just being experienced 
• There was a climate crisis 
• There was a clash of cultures 

And then there is the Round Table… The Round Table was made in 1250-80, most likely for King Edward I to mark the betrothal of his daughter and then painted by Henry VIII for the visit of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1522. This means that the Table came into existence after the original story by Geoffrey of Monmouth was written, during a time where the myths of King Arthur began to form.

What about the Holy Grail? Most likely the Holy Grail was related to the Buddhist idea of magical stones and was “created” because of the evidence of trading with China since the 830s. Did the Holy Grail exist though? That question still has not been answered. 

Image of King Arthur at the Round Table with the Holy Grail at the Center

Yes, it is very probable that King Arthur existed; his knights of the Round Table did not. There was an Arthurian resistance in Western Britain that probably began with the clash of cultures during the climate crisis. Time has altered the original story of a great leader in Britain during the sixth century. That leader did not face dragons or have a warlock sidekick. But, he did indeed lead his people and earned himself a fantastic and magical legend based on his actions in the mysterious land of Camelot.

This article is a summary of Penn State's Great Riddles in Archaeology: King Arthur, Camelot, and the Quest for a Holy Grail.

About the Author

I'm Melanie, the founder of BermudaQuest and an archaeology undergraduate at the University of New Mexico. I love writing about ancient and modern cultures. My goal is to make information about our origins available to everyone [in simple English!]

Ashoka Maurya

(304 - 232 BCE)

PBS © 2008

MayaVision International

Ashoka Maurya (Aśoka in Sanskrit), also known as Ashoka the Great, reined as a “righteous king” (dhammaraja) during the Maurya Dynasty of India from 269 – 238 BCE. He was known as a righteous king because, after converting to Buddhism, his political expression was dominated by Buddhist values. Ashoka, born in 304 BCE, was the son of the second emperor Bindusara, who in turn had been the son of the first emperor Chandragupta. Ashoka had one younger brother and several older half-brothers. His older brothers feared Ashoka would be given the throne when he began to show success as a military leader. Emperor Bindusara grew ill and it became clear that his death was imminent. War broke out between the brothers fighting for the throne. After a series of battles, Ashoka killed most of his brothers and attained the throne in 274 BCE.

During his early reign, Ashoka set out to conquer the surrounding kingdoms. His military conquests spread across India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and some parts of Iran.

The first eight years of his empire were brutal – Ashoka “became famous for his brutality and his desire to expand the Mauryan Empire” (Freeman). When he learned that one of his brothers was hiding in Kalinga, he invaded the province. Thousands were killed and the land utterly destroyed.

Ashoka became repulsed by the number of deaths he witnessed at Kalinga. “Standing along the front lines, Ashoka witnessed first hand the massacre of hundreds of thousands […] He knew so many had lost their lives simply because, he, the king, had ordered them to do so. Women became widows, children now orphans, Ashoka asked himself exactly what had his people won in war” (Wold). The kingdoms around them were not a threat of invasion. From that point on, he rejected violence for the rest of his life, converted to Buddhism and embraced vegetarianism. His attention moved from conquest to the welfare of his people. Peace began, his people began to love and respect all living things.

Ashoka the Great is famous for his non-violent propagation of Buddhism across Asia, as well as Europe and Africa. He abolished the slaughter and mutilation of animals. Hunting was limited only for consumption, though many followed his example as a vegetarian. He showed mercy to those in prison and gave them freedom one day every year. He set up universities as well as “water transit and irrigation systems for trade and agriculture” (Wold). The caste system ceased to exist in his eyes. Even though Buddhism was the national religion, he supported religious tolerance and unified the empire. Each and every person was given the rights to freedom, tolerance, and equality.

Now, the first Buddhist emperor became a Buddhist practitioner. He built 84,000 stupas across the Mauryan empire to house the sacred relics of Buddha. Ashoka sent out his children on religious pilgrimages to other kingdoms so they could share the philosophies that had unified their empire of peace and prosperity.

Great Stupa at Sanchi

Ekabhishek, Wikipedia Commons

A surviving Edict of Ashoka, Kolhua, Bihar.
PBS © 2008 MayaVision International.

He began by sending his only daughter, Sanghamitta, and son, Mahindra, to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka. “Ashoka also sent many prominent Buddhist monks to modern Kashmir, Afganistan, Bhutan, China, Mongolia Cambodia, Laos, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Persia, Egypt, and Greece. Ashoka’s efforts helped to spread Buddhism across East Asia, where it has become the dominant faith of that region. Ashoka’s efforts to spread Buddhism in the west were much less successful. Nevertheless, there is evidence that a small Buddhist community began to develop at the Greek city of Alexandria in Egypt at this time. It has even been suggested that certain Ptolemaic Greek philosophers were influenced by Buddhism and that they in turn influenced the early development of Christianity” (Explore the Mediterranean).

Lion Capital of Ashoka
Catawba College

The great Mauryan emperor died in 232 BCE, though his dynasty lasted fifty more years. His name would have disappeared from history becoming only a myth if it hadn’t been for the pillars that recorded the actions and teachings he put in place. His testimonies are located throughout the territories he influenced. These monuments were not written in Sanskrit, instead they were written in what would be the first written language since the ancient city of Harrapa, Prakrita. 

Today “one of his stupas, the Great Sanchi Stupa, has been declared as a World Heritage Site by UNECSO. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath has a four-lion capital, which was later adopted as the national emblem of the modern Indian republic” (Cultural India). Pillar Edict VII quotes Ashoka, “I consider the promotion of my people’s welfare my highest duty.” He was able to initiate the global spread of Buddhism and affected around 21.5 billion lives.

Resources:

Cultural India. "Ashoka." CulturalIndia.net

Dhammika, Ven S. "King Ashoka: His Edicts and Timelines." The Wheel Publication Number 386/387. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1993.

Explore the Mediterranean. "The Top Ten Most Influential People in History." Historical Atlas of the Mediterranean. 

Freeman, Larry. "Ashok: A Short Biography of Ashoka the Great of India." Hubpages.com

Wold, Kevin. "The Life of Ashoka Mauryan." Kevin Wold's Webpage for Those Who Seek Enlightenment. CHICO.

About the Author

I'm Melanie, the founder of BermudaQuest and an archaeology undergraduate at the University of New Mexico. I love writing about ancient and modern cultures. My goal is to make information about our origins available to everyone [in simple English!]

Steve Jobs

An overview of the greatest entrepreneur's life.

Steve Jobs
1955 - 2011

Technology is a basic necessity in our lives. Fifty years ago Steve Jobs began a revolution. 

At the age of fourteen, Jobs was offered a summer job at Hewlett-Packard. Jobs began as an entrepreneur early on when he “co-created” and sold an illegal phone attachment, the “blue box.” His creation enabled long distance calls. He also sold and repaired stereos during high school. Three years later, after meeting Steve Wozniak, he graduates from high school.

Jobs drops out of college after his first semester and joined Atari, Inc. as a technician. Five years pass, Wozniak and Jobs raise enough money to create Apple I. Later that year, Jobs founds Apple Computer company with Wozniak and Ronald Wayne. Wayne leaves two weeks after the founding.

Apple launches Apple I for $666.66, the first single-board computer with a video interface and an onboard Read Only Memory (ROM) that told the machine how to load programs from an external source. Apple Inc. comes into the picture the following year.

Apple II and Apple III launch within five years and Macintosh development began. His project Lisa, the first mouse-controlled computer, fails in the marketplace. In 1984, Apple launches Macintosh during the Super Bowl. In 1985, Jobs wins the National Technology Medal from U.S. President Ronald Reagan.

Jobs resigns from Apple after a struggle with Apple President John Sculley and founds Next Inc. Next, Jobs buys Pixar from George Lucas and launches the $6,500 NeXT Computer "Cube." Cube also fails in the market.

After repeated failures, Next shifts its focus to software. Apple acquires Next Computer for $427 million in cash and Apple stock, Jobs becomes advisor to Apple Chairman Gilbert F. Amelio. In 1997, Jobs becomes interim CEO and chairman of Apple Computer Inc., after Amelio is ousted. Jobs' salary is $1.

In 1998, Apple releases the all-in-one iMac computer, which sells millions of units, financially reviving the company and boosting its share price by 400 percent. IMac wins the Gold Award from British Design and Art Direction. Vogue calls the iMac "one of Spring's hottest fashion statements," and Business Week says it is "one of the century's lasting images." Jobs wins a Chrysler Design Institute award for the iMac design.

From here on, Apple has a bright future:

2001 - Apple makes first foray into consumer electronics market with launch of iPod, portable MP3 player. It sells more than 2 million units by 2004

2002 - Launches the flat-panel all-in-one personal computer iMac. It makes the cover of Time Magazine that year and wins numerous design awards

2003 - Jobs announces the iTunes Music Store, which sells encoded songs and albums.

2003 - Jobs launches the 64-bit PowerMac G5 personal computer.

2004 - The iPod Mini, a smaller version of the original iPod, is launched.

2007 - Jobs announces the iPhone, the first smartphone without a keyboard, at Macworld Expo.

2011 - iPhone 4S is set to launch on October 14, 2011.

In 2004, Jobs is diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. In 2009, he undergoes a second surgery. In 2011, Jobs officially resigns as the greatest CEO of all time.

Steve Jobs, put into adoption five months after birth, was able to conquer the obstacles that confronted him in life. With no college background, Jobs climbed the ladder of success one step at a time and created a new standard of living. His creations are everywhere: iPods, iPhones, Macs - Jobs lives on in the technology he created for the world. He was unable to see the iPhone 4S become the new device everyone wants but October 14, 2011 has been declared Steve Jobs Day. He will be remembered for years and years to come because of his accomplishments. It takes a true genius to change the way the world thinks, acts, and works. He did it, and even in his passing Apple will continue to create what Jobs wanted the world to experience. Rest in peace Steve Jobs - the world will forever remember you as the greatest entrepreneur of the 21st Century and perhaps for centuries to come.

Testimonials

David Iniguez: “Definitely sad…It may sound ridiculous, but something is REALLY missing…It'll be a long time until we have a genius like him again.”

George Veach: “Imagine what could have happened if he would have lived another 20 years....”

Nevin Mogford: "He almost single handedly made computing easy enough for the average person to use. If it hadn’t been for the introduction of the windows GUI computing would still an academic endeavor."

Debra Claus-Walker: “I got my first Mac in grad school, an SE30 in 1989 and I can't count the number of Apple computers/products I've owned since. Once you buy and Mac you don't go back. I remember having to use an IBM Thinkpad and other PCs in one lab as a research specialist. I was always trouble-shooting something or another. If you want to get work done...you get a Mac. Macs, iPods, IPhones set the standard and it was Steve Job's vision that made these wonderful tools possible. May this brilliant man RIP!
 

Steve Jobs portrait made out of Apple products courtesy of David Quilty.