Within Nordic culture the people used myth to explain certain aspects of their society, how they see the world, and explain natural phenomenon. These myths set up the basic structure and decorum that the Norse people followed in their day to day lives. It has to be noted though, that the myths we have to draw on today were translated and transcribed by a Christian missionary and some of the stories are probably slanted to present Christian symbolism. 

There is a myth called The Song of Rig that explains why there is a class system. In this myth, Heimdall, an Aesir God, visits three different households for a period of three days each. With each house he visits he sleeps in the same bed as the husband and wife and impregnates the wife. Each house Heimdall visits possesses more and more wealth. The difference in wealth between the households determined the three classes in society, setting up the peasant, warrior, and lords. This sets the basic infrastructure of Norse society. 

Yggdrasil by Christian
[Flickr, CC BY-ND 2.0]

Nordic culture had a completely different world view from what is commonly accepted today. Instead of the world being round and revolving around the sun the Norse viewed the world as being separated into three levels that were supported by a tree called Yggdrasil. The lower level of the tree supported the equivalent of a Norse Underworld, the middle region was called Midgard where mankind lived, and the top level was called the realm of Asgard where the gods resided. There were thought to be eight other worlds that centered on the holy tree, Yggdrasil. 

The creation myth that the Norse believed in was also different from what is mainstream in religions today. They believed that the galaxy was created when the Aesir and the Vanir gods and goddesses slayed a giant. While the body of the giant was ripped to pieces the different parts were put into place in order to create the stars, sun, earth, Milky Way, etc. 

The Norse used myths to explain natural phenomenon as well. In the myth Loki’s Flyting, Loki is punished by the Aesir for killing Balder, a beloved god. After Loki was captured he was bound by his son Naris’ entrails and the goddess Skaoi took a venomous snake and placed it over Loki’s face to drip poison. Loki’s wife Sigyn holds a bowl over his face, but when the bowl is full she has to leave to empty it allowing poison to hit Loki’s face. Loki writhing in pain from the poison is what the Norse believed caused earthquakes. 

The Nordic culture is unique in its own rights. The myths are very bloody and are somewhat confusing in a modern day context. The Norse had a different world view from what we have today, but the basic structure of their society is similar. Norse myth is more relatable to Greek myth then Hindu, Christian, or Native American. Greek myth, like Norse is has a pantheon of gods and goddess, is fairly gruesome, and similar creation myths. If Norse myth gets confusing first compare it Greek to try and understand what the underlying message is.

For Further Reading

Crossley-Holland, K. (1981). The Norse Myths Introduced and Retold. USA: The Pantheon Fairy Tale & Folklore Library. ISBN: 0349748468 

Click here to order your copy now!

Skara Brae home

Of the coast of Scotland in the Orkney Isles are the well-preserved remains of the Neolithic village Skara Brae. The organized housing complexes contain what can only be described as “fitted furniture.” These closely built [nearly identical] homes of the Neolithic farming community have a dresser, central hearth (fireplace), box beds, and a tank that may have been for fishing bait. These homes also had stone doors (a possible symbol for privacy and security). Based on the lack of evidence of weapons, this was a very peaceful and secure community.

From left to right: House 9 (visible hearth), House 8 (stone walls), House 1 (furniture remains) 

Skara Brae is the best preserved Neolithic village in Northern Europe. “In 1850 a violent storm ravaged the Bay of Skaill in the Orkney Isles to the north-east of mainland Scotland, revealing the Neolithic village of Skara Brae buried beneath the sand dunes. It is the best preserved Neolithic village in northern Europe and it offers us a unique window into the lives of the farmers who lived there between 3,200 and 2,500 BC. Skara Brae's remarkable survival through the ages is thanks to the design of the original builders who buried the stone-slab walls up to roof level in clay soil and waste material in order to provide insulation and protection from the elements” (BBC). This type of tightly knit and communal village life is unusual for early farming communities; there seems to have been little room for “non-conformists.”

Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site

Skara Brae is part of the Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site, which also includes:

• A large chambered tomb, Maes Howe;
• Two ceremonial stone circles, the Stones of Stenness and the Ring of Brodgar;
• Together with several unexcavated burial, ceremonial, and settlement sites.

These Orkney monuments are the only records we have of the indigenous cultural tradition, which flourished 500-1,000 years and disappeared around 2,000 BCE. UNESCO states in “The Heart of Neolithic Orkney, “They are testimony to the cultural achievements of the Neolithic peoples of northern Europe, during the period 3000-2000 BC.”

Visiting Skara Brae

Those who wish to visit Skara Brae can tour the original homes as well as a reconstructed version that shows visitors what Neolithic life was like; plus in the Visitor Center, you can explore the site’s history with touchscreen presentations, fact-finding quizzes for children and adults, and see artifacts discovered during the 1970s excavations.

For Further Reading:

• "Heart of Neolithic Orkney." by UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 
• "Skara Brae." on Historvious.
• "Skara Brae Prehistoric Village." by Historic Scotland. Historic Scotland
• Towrie, Sigurd. "Skara Brae - The Discovery and Excavation of Orkney's Finest Neolithic Settlement." on Orkneyjar. 

Image Credits: Wknight94 via Wikimedia Commons (CC)

About the Author

I'm Melanie, the founder of BermudaQuest and an archaeology undergraduate at the University of New Mexico. I love writing about ancient and modern cultures. My goal is to make information about our origins available to everyone [in simple English!]

A Druidess,
painting by Alexandre Cabanel
Wikipedia Commons

It is unknown when the Celts arrived in Britain, but it was sometime around 600 BCE. However, evidence of a Celtic culture goes farther back prior to the building of Stonehenge (2000 BCE). “One can speak of Celtic culture and languages, but there is no single Celtic race; Celtic speakers vary in appearance from short and swarthy to tall and fair” (John Michell). Who were the druids?

First, you have to understand that the Celts had a calendar that combined the solar and lunar cycles. Their influence originated in megalithic times. Land was equally distributed. Their social structure was based on religious cosmology and democratic idealism. How do we know this? Druid traditions have been passed down orally through songs; they simply did not write things down.

The Druids “were the lawyers, doctors, teachers, storytellers, and other professional of that culture. They were more than just clergy” (Spelcastor). They were the highly educated Celts.

“A great many old farmsteads in Britain, today, are on Celtic sites. During his raid on Celtic Britain in 55 B.C., Julius Caesar commented on its high population and numerous farms and cattle. The unifying bond between all the Celtic tribes was their common priesthood, the Druids. Their efforts preserved common culture, religion, history, laws, scholarship, and science. They had paramount authority over every tribal chief and, since their office was sacred, they could move where they wanted. settling disputes and stopping battles by compelling the rival parties to arbitration.” – John Michell

We know about the Druids through texts from other cultures such as Caesar: “They know much about the stars and celestial motions, and about the size of the earth and universe, and about the essential nature of things, and about the powers and authority of' the immortal gods; and these things they teach to their pupils.”

There is one obvious difference between the “megalithic Druids” and the Celtic Druids: the Celtic Druids moved away from giant stone monuments and focused on using natural shrines, such as springs and groves, for their rituals.

There were three specialties within ancient Druidism. First, there were the Bards, the keepers of tradition and memory of the tribe. Second were the Ovates, the natural healers. Lastly, the Druids and Druidesses were the professionals: priests, teachers, ambassadors, astronomers, genealogists, philosophers, musicians, theologians, scientists, poets and judges. 

Coventina [Three Sisters]
Wikipedia Commons

Druid tribes were spread across Europe. With such large geographic coverage, it is only natural that 300 deities of 374 were local. It is possible that there were 33 main deities (a common number that reoccurs in Celtic literature). They believed the dead moved on to the Otherworld after death. A creation myth has yet to be discovered, but there is some evidence of a baptism initiation ceremony.

The Romans justified destroying the Celts with war, the Christians with establishing a rival religion [against Druidism]. However,

“the Christian Church adsorbed much of Celtic religion. Many Pagan Gods and Goddesses have become Christian saints; sacred springs and wells were preserved and associated with saints; many Pagan temple sites became the location of cathedrals. By the 7th Century CE, Druidism itself was destroyed or continued deeply underground throughout most of the formerly Celtic lands. There is some evidence that Pagan religions did survive in isolated areas of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania into the 20th Century.” – B.A. Robinson

 “Whether as a native development or prompted by outside influences, a spiritual revival seems to have occurred in Britain in about 2000 B.C. with the building of the cosmic temple of Stonehenge and the first evidences of Celtic culture. Stonehenge is a unique monument, a symbol of a new revelation. The tendency in modern scholarship is to see it once more as the temple of the Druids, If so, it proclaims the high ideals on which Druidism in Britain was founded.” – John Michell

About the Author

I'm Melanie, the founder of BermudaQuest and an archaeology undergraduate at the University of New Mexico. I love writing about ancient and modern cultures. My goal is to make information about our origins available to everyone [in simple English!]

There are stories about the great King Arthur of Camelot, a man of honor, duty, and self-sacrifice. King Arthur and Camelot are a riddle for every age. 

(All dates referenced in this article are Common Era [CE] or Anno Domini [AD].) 

In order to solve the riddle, first you have to go back to the Late Roman Era. In 410, Honorius withdraws Roman legions from Britain. According to the historian Bede, the Anglo-Saxons came in waves, the Adventus Saxonum, in 449 to 455. In 476, lived the last Roman Emperor of the West, Romulus Augustus. Then, as Dr. Richard Hodges says, “Depending on whom you believe, there was this character, this individual known as Ambrosius Aurelianus who lived 490 to 520, or as I believe until 550.” 

With the discovery of potsherds, many dates have been modified. Mediterranean amphorae were discovered in western Britain that date back to 525 to 550. Then, in the 550s Bertha, a French princess, marries Ethlebertht of Kent: this event is significant because this is the first act of Christianity in that part of Britain since the Romans. Nearly half a century later, St. Augustine arrives in 597. During that time, there are all sherds (E wares) in the western Irish Sea zone. Finally, the Sutton Hoo ship burial site completes the timeline at 625/8, which gives us a lot of insight about the archaeology of this mysterious world. 

Geoffrey of Monmouth, or Gruffudd ap Arthur, (1100-1155) created the modern story of King Arthur. He was a Mormon but spent much of his life before he became Bishop of St. Asaph (1152-1155) at Oxford. It is probable that he reshaped the story of Arthur and Merlin at Oxford. But, Geoffrey did not create the story. Gildas, who possibly lived in Wales, wrote the first version of King Arthur during the sixth century, De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. He wrote about the land around him and the magical tale of Ambrosius Aurelianus who confronted two dragons and his fights with the Anglo-Saxons. However, the ninth century chronicler Nennius embellished the story with his work Historia Brittonum, and the introduction of the magical character Myrddin Wyllt, a prototype of Merlin. Geoffrey constructed we know by using Nennius’ version of the Tale of King Arthur. 

Raleigh Radford (1900-1999), in 1936 excavated Tintagel Castle. During this excavation, he discovered numerous amounts of imported Mediterranean potsherds. It took him twenty years to publish his discovery, a discovery that he believed linked Tintagel to King Arthur. He proposed that this particular part of western Britain that included Cornwall, Devon, and Somerset was actually home to the Arthurian resistance of the Anglo-Saxons. Christopher Morris went back to the site and discovered a slate inscribed with the name “Artognov” on August 6, 1998. This is the first piece of evidence of a possible King Arthur. 

Tintagel Castle
Image courtesy tansyfiredragon.blogspot.com

Read the original publication about the “Arthurian Inscription Found at Tintagel”

Similar sherds to those in Tintagel are all over western Britain, always in fortified hill sites. These sherds led Radford to Glastonbury. It was believed that King Arthur and his lady were buried at Glastonbury Abbey. Radford hardly discovered anything at Glastonbury except that the site had a very long history that dated back to Roman times. 

In 1971, Leslie Alcock published Arthur’ Britain. Alcock believed South Cadbury was Camelot. There are many different beliefs about where Camelot was. Geoffrey of Monmouth believed the City of Legions, Caerleon-on-Usk was Camelot. The Welsh Triads believe Camelot was Celliwic in Cornwall-Callington or Killibury Castle. Then you have William Camden, who wrote Britannia, claim the local people of South Cadbury believed South Cadbury was Arthur’s Palace. 

William Stukeley wrote in Itinerarium curiosum (1723), “Camelot is a noted place […] There is a higher angle of ground within, ditched about, where they say was King Arthur’s palace […] Roman coin in great plenty has been found here: I saw vast numbers of Antoninus and Faustina. Selden, in his notes Poluolbion, writes it was full of ruins and reliques of old buildings.” 

Small excavations began at the South Cadbury Hillfort. Leslie Alcock decided to call this place Cadbury-Camelot. Two interesting discoveries came up. First, they discovered fortifications across the hilltops with the same dates as the potsherds. The fortified hilltop had been built to defend the people of the era from the Roman conquest. Alcock discovered the insides had been refurbished. The second discovery is a timber palace. The palace is not as many would imagine Arthur’s home after all those magical movie portrayals, but it is the palace of Cadbury-Camelot nonetheless. Mediterranean potsherds appeared yet again inside the palace. Whether Cadubury-Camelot was the mythical Camelot of the stories or not, the site was a very important place. 

Cadbury Castle (Camelot?)

Immediately to the east of Cadbury lay the Selwood Forest. Today, very little of the forest remains due to extensive deforestation during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Selwood would have separated “Arthur’s Britain” from Anglo-Saxon Britain.

Since Alcock’s excavation, the potsherds have been redated to 525 to 550 during the time of Justinian. Then there is the very unlikely tale of Adventus Saxonum. According to the Legend of King Arthur, Arthur fought against the Anglo-Saxon Vortigern. The Anglo-Saxons are portrayed as violent warlike people who in reality were very peaceful.

A climate crisis hit Ireland and Britain. By looking at trees, scientists know there was no growth for four or five years. Cloud cover was very likely and probably caused by a volcanic eruption. Anglo-Saxons relocated westward through Selwood Forest. The fortifications are most likely a response to this unexpected clash of cultures.

During this Merovingian Age, there were two trade routes in Britain and Ireland: the eastern trade route and the western trade route. The eastern trade route had items of higher value. The Sutton Hoo burial ship is evidence of this richness due to trade. The most remarkable discovery inside the ship were the Celtic bowls. These bowls prove that at the funerary feast, there were Britains present. The fact that Britains were present means that the Arthurian resistance had ended.

Original publication of the Sutton Hoo Burial Ship
Image courtesy Illustrated News London

1939 Sutton Hoo Ship Excavation: Sutton Hoo Society

   

Sutton Hoo Burial Ship
Celtic Bowl, Merovingian Purse Cover, Helmet

Here are the undeniable facts:

• There was a resistance during the sixth century 
• Christianity was just being experienced 
• There was a climate crisis 
• There was a clash of cultures 

And then there is the Round Table… The Round Table was made in 1250-80, most likely for King Edward I to mark the betrothal of his daughter and then painted by Henry VIII for the visit of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1522. This means that the Table came into existence after the original story by Geoffrey of Monmouth was written, during a time where the myths of King Arthur began to form.

What about the Holy Grail? Most likely the Holy Grail was related to the Buddhist idea of magical stones and was “created” because of the evidence of trading with China since the 830s. Did the Holy Grail exist though? That question still has not been answered. 

Image of King Arthur at the Round Table with the Holy Grail at the Center

Yes, it is very probable that King Arthur existed; his knights of the Round Table did not. There was an Arthurian resistance in Western Britain that probably began with the clash of cultures during the climate crisis. Time has altered the original story of a great leader in Britain during the sixth century. That leader did not face dragons or have a warlock sidekick. But, he did indeed lead his people and earned himself a fantastic and magical legend based on his actions in the mysterious land of Camelot.

This article is a summary of Penn State's Great Riddles in Archaeology: King Arthur, Camelot, and the Quest for a Holy Grail.

About the Author

I'm Melanie, the founder of BermudaQuest and an archaeology undergraduate at the University of New Mexico. I love writing about ancient and modern cultures. My goal is to make information about our origins available to everyone [in simple English!]

The following article is a guest blog contribution by Jonathan G 'ODonoghue, originally published on Our Irish Heritage, (January 11, 2012). We send our thanks to Jonathan for allowing us to republish this article on BermudaQuest.

Lettergorman/Leitir Gormáin, Cork 
Five-stone circle 
Guest blog by Jonathan G O'Donoghue

Lettergorman in Cork is a five-stone circle, there is a 6th stone lying next to the stone circle, which is a block of white quartz, these stones are often associated with stone circles, quartz in Irish being 'Grianchloch', which means 'sun stone', and also in this stone circle one of the two portal stones has fallen. The name Lettergorman comes from the Irish 'Leitir Gormáin' meaning cornflower/blue bottle hillside, Leitir being Hillside or wet hillside, and gormáin meaning either the plant blue bottle or cornflower.

Stone Circles of Folklore

In the 17th and 18th centurty folklore stone circles were seen as petrified dancers who dared dance on a Sunday. This period found the Catholic as well Protestant churches making Sunday an issue to have meriment so throughout Europe you have this story of stone circles being petrified dancers. But in Ireland this is very rare, only found in a small area in the east of the country, which was probably imported from Wales and Cornwall, where this story was much more prevalent.

Lettergorman Five-stone circle
Illustration by JG O'Donoghue

Stone Circles of Archaeology

In Britain it has been found that there is a correlation between stone circles and stone axe factories, this is of yet unproven in Ireland. Stone circles near trackways may have been places of acquisition and distribution of stone axes and from there brought to richer settlement areas. In Ireland the main factory of stone axe production was in Antrim, stone axes originating from there have been found in Britain, mostly scotland and throughout Ireland as far south as Lough Gur. The Common orientation of earlier wedge tombs with that of stone circles of a later period shows some continuation of belief between the two, this is further emphasised by the regional distribution of these monuments, suggesting stable settlement patterns over a long period.

Munster Stone Circles

Many stone circles in Munster only have 5 stones, like the one illustrated here, but can go up to 19 stones, commonly among these southernly stone circles is the axial or recumbent stone, which is usually in the southwestern area of the circle, directly accross the largiest two stones, the portal stones, which mark the entrance, from there the stones decrease in size till the recumbent stone.

Jonathan G O’Donoghue is a freelance illustrator from Cork, Ireland. His work focuses on aspects of Irish identity, including but not limited to Irish archaeology, language, or typography. His work exploes and celebrates these issues and subjects and attempts to raise awareness and interest in them. His work is in the traditional medium of pen and ink as well as painting with colored inks. For more information about Jonathan please visit his site or contact him at info@jgodonoghue.com.

Learn the Steps to Staging a Celtic Wedding 

While most people today get married either in courthouses or modest churches, there can be no denying the fact that the Celts have one of the richest and most amazing practices when it comes to marriage. Even today, people are still so amazed and drawn by its majesty and grandeur that they aim to conduct their wedding in such style. If you are planning on staging a Celtic wedding then perhaps you should make sure to go along with the following steps. 

The first thing you need to make sure of is that you are indeed using a Celtic ring for the proposal. If you want to be successful staging a Celtic wedding then you will need to start off right by proposing with the proper type of ring. 

Second of all, you need to locate the proper venue for the event. You will want to look mainly for stone buildings, such as castles or old churches and make sure that you decorate them with flowers which originate from Ireland, such as the hydrangeas and the ivy. 

Third of all, you need to take into consideration the food you will be eating. Naturally, to keep up with the spirit you will want to have real Irish dishes served, not to mention using large gold or silver plates for the food and goblets for the drinks. 

The fourth aspect of staging a Celtic wedding that you will have to take care of involves dressing like a Celt. For the bride, dresses with corsets, wide sleeves and hemlines along with tied belts and flower headdresses are in order. The groom can wear the traditional Kilt if he feels inclined to do so. 

A very important part of making sure that you are indeed staging a Celtic wedding is to implement some of the more ancient Celtic traditions into the mix, such as handfasting which is basically when the bride and the groom join their left and right hands together in order to make the infinity sign, or the number 8, depending on which you prefer. 

One of the most important parts of any ceremony is the wedding cake, and if you want to stay in the Celtic spirit then, as you probably guessed it already, you will have to get some type of Irish wedding cake. One of the most popular dishes for this is the Irish wedding fruitcake, which basically contains raisins, cherries and almonds along with a bit of brandy. To add even more to the Celtic ambiance, you will of course need Celtic music to be playing during the ceremony, or at least during the reception. You should look into hiring a piper or a minstrel band to give it an authentic feeling. 

Finally, last but not least, you will want to make sure that your guests will be able to take home some souvenirs to remember this special event forever… Celtic souvenirs that is. There are various little Celtic items for you to choose from, ranging from lucky horseshoes and Celtic coasters all the way to pendant crosses.

About the Author: Steven Forsyth has studied Celtic Mythology and Irish Folklore, he has worked in the Jewelry industry for over 7 years with Celtic Rings Ltd in Dublin, Ireland.

The Tools of the Celtic Empire

The Celts are remembered as warriors during the Bronze and Iron Age. Other than great warriors they were masters of metal work for different uses, such as farming and mining. They built many of the “common” tools known such as an anvil or an axe, but they gave them personal designs.

The Celts developed incredible metal working skills. With bronze and iron, they made superior tools and weapons. There are two kinds of Celtic sword, “long” and “short”. The most common is the "long" sword, which usually has a handle or hilt made from organic material, such as wood, bone, or horn. The swords also usually had an iron plate in front of the guard. The “short” sword was simpler with just copper alloy all throughout. For armor they made regular leather shields but with metal coverings and chain-linked suits.

One of their most significant developments was the spoked wheel, metal wheel rims and iron horseshoes. The metal rims gave their chariots and carts greater speed and smoother movement while having less likeliness of breakage in both distant travel and military encounters. The horseshoes gave the horse’s hooves greater protection from injury, therefor allowing the animal greater endurance and speed.

For farming they developed a mechanized harvester; a wooden cart with spoked wheels that had blades mounted on the sides. An ox then pushed the cart, allowing the blades to cut the crops which were then pushed up a ramp and dumped into the cart.

In mining for salt that was used for trade, the miners wore helmets are made of hardened leather. The leather was soaked in water to make it more pliable. It was then shaped and rubbed with salt. After it dried, the helmet was painted with a shellac or lacquer. Four or five coats of the lacquer would further harden the leather. This technique was used in the United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to make helmets for firefighters.

The Celts were excellent craftsmen that incorporated their famous abstract designs to most everyday tools, weapons, jewelry and pottery. Their distinguishable designs can be seen on anything they created.

About the Author

I'm Jose Pierre and I like learning about all aspects of culture, both ancient and modern. I enjoy learning how they communicated, expressed themselves, and their technology.